Paganism encompasses a range of religions, belief systems and practices2,3,4,5: these include Asatrú, Celtic revivalism, Druidism, Goddess Spirituality, Heathenism, Paganism, various magical groups, some of the New Age, a few occult groups, Sacred Ecology and Wicca. It also covers the interest of previously-uninvolved Westerners in Shamanism, Native American and Native Australian spiritualism, and other primitivist belief systems. The Pagan Federation defines a Pagan as "a follower of a polytheistic or pantheistic nature-worshipping religion"5.
In general, followers and fans are called Pagans with a capital "P" in
order to differentiate them from "pagans", a historical religious term
to mean anyone not a member of the traditional monotheistic religions. In the USA the term neo-Pagan is used for the same purpose.
General modern Paganism "is not a doctrinaire movement" and it is based "on experience rather than on blind faith"6. The various forms of Paganism tend to share an individualistic approach, are spiritually and magically oriented, reject monotheism7, involve a goddess of some sort ("a religion without goddesses can hardly be classified as Pagan"5),
and veer away from commercialism. They claim ancient and timeless
"wisdom" and draw upon elements of religions from around the world,
especially Western esoterism, romanticised versions of native beliefs
and Indian spirituality, and share a creative use of myth and a seasonal cycle of festivals8.
Also normal are a positive and moral approach to environmentalism and
feminism (or at least gender neutrality) and a generally liberal
approach to human (and animal) rights in general. They do not consider
the world to be bad nor ourselves to be inherently sinful9.The resulting kaleidoscope of beliefs and practices are mostly indulged in quite lightly, all described and merged using mystical and airy language which, however kindly it is meant, tends to lack any philosophical cogency and sits, generally speaking, within the realm of the mythical and the irrational. Concerns abound from Christians and other representatives of world religions who are clearly worried about the new competition from this popular and young suite of newcomers to the world stage, however, it must be noted that "most people's prejudices [towards Paganism in general] are based on misrepresentation by the media"8 and some people still confuse Paganism with Satanism10. Critics of Paganism can also be found amongst historians, skeptics, scientists and intellectuals based on the negative effect it can all have on common sense, and, complaints also arise from the natives and other genuine gurus of the traditions from which Paganism has drawn. Despite those problems and the addiitonal one of "Pagan" not referring to any particular belief system, "there is both official and academic recognition that Paganism is a serious religion"8.
1. Brief Introductions
1.1. Wicca
“Wicca is a Western mystery religion12 invented and founded by Gerald Gardner in the UK in the 1950s, followed shortly by the very similar Alexandrian Wicca in the 1960s, although the two strands are now very closely intertwined13 and Wicca is decentralized. Wiccan practices centre on ritual, nature veneration, natural cycles, and magical and spiritual learning14. Much of it derived from pseudo-folklore. Its festivals are held on the eight yearly Sabbats. Divinity in Wicca is seen as both male and female (typically as the Horned God and Mother Goddess14), as are the general forces of nature which emanate from the male and female principal15,16, and these two sides complement one another13,17. Groups of adherents are called covens and as with other mystery religions entrance to Wicca comes by way of initiation, a process which requires study and the gaining of the trust of the others. Covens aim to have thirteen members, which are then traditionally seen as "full", and growth comes by way of splintering13. Solitary practitioners are called hedgewitches. Compared to other new religious movements in the West, adherence to Wicca takes up a surprising amount of dedication and time13.”
1.2. The New Age
“The New Age is a wildly varied collection of practices and beliefs and is not a worked-out structured belief system. Popular elements include alchemy, alternative psychotherapy techniques, animism, aromatherapy, astrology, crystal work, divination, Gnosticism, karma stuff, lightwork and colour healing, magic, psychic powers of every kind, reincarnation and past life regression, sacred geometry (leylines, pyramids, magical shapes), Spiritualism, Tarot card readings, Taoism, Yoga and many other splintered movements and zany practices18. It purportedly comprises of survivals and echoes of older religious practices taken from folklore, superstition, occult magical theory, common pre-modern magical practices and elements of Eastern religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism. The peoples of mythical places such as Atlantis and Avalon rub shoulders with the gods, goddesses and other spiritual beings from ancient Greece, ancient Egypt and the Celtic, Nordic, Saxon, Teutonic and Native American belief systems19. New Agers themselves emphasize the 'arcane' nature of their 'ancient' and 'secret' wisdom20. An interesting facet of what we call the "New Age" is that much of it comprises of parts of much older belief system - practices that are commonplace amongst the Hindus in India, such as meditation, are simply called 'new age' when they happen to be practiced by Westerners. Much of the Indian influence on the New Age derives from diluted practices and ideas brought from India by the Theosophists.Pagans and New Agers share a large number of cultural interests and there is a significant overlap between the two communities22. Some scholars class neo-Paganism as a whole as part of the New Age as a whole, where some are sure that they are independent developments23. For example, Nevil Drury say Paganism is New Age, but Aiden Kelly differentiates them24. Pagans themselves despise being described as New age as Pagans consider themselves "less consumer oriented and less mainstream than New Age" whilst New Agers tend to focus on "light" and "healing" and other intensely saccharine concepts, all mixed in with a very open form of popularism25,22. Despite those differences, in 1995 the researcher Michael York found that at a Newcastle conference, Paganism in Contemporary Britain, the attendees were not only well educated about the New Age as a whole, but, they expressed opinions that it was worthwhile and good - no-one there said otherwise10.
New Age beliefs and practices have also been known as "Self-Spirituality", "Mind-Body-Spirit", "Age of Aquarius", the "Mind-Cure" movement, the "New Thought" movement, the "Religion of Healthy-Mindedness" and "Mental Science". In modern times, the concept of the New Age has come to encompass a wild variety of practices and beliefs, making it very hard to use the term 'New Age' meaningfully21. Here, we use the word in a wide and liberal sense in order to find points of similarity between it and alternative religion and NRMs in general, rather than restrict its meaning to exclude areas that some readers would want to have it include.”
1.3. Shamanism
“Shamanism is a timeless and ancient style of religion, involving beliefs and practices that predate history, although the word itself comes from the Tungus people of Siberia, Russia26. Shamans still operate today in North America in some native Indian communities and amongst some Australian aborigines.27 The oldest evidence of Shamanism comes from European cave paintings, the oldest of which are over 30,000 years old28. It is based on animism - the belief that spirits are everywhere, indwelling not only all animals, but objects too29. Shamans are tribal spiritual leaders who are believed to be skilled in harnessing animal spirits as allies in order to look after the local community30,31 and to be able to act as "mediator between the human world and the world of the spirits"32. They attempt to ascertain the causes of calamities and to improve the luck and enterprise of the tribe. In trances and altered states of consciousness, often brought about through the use of psychoactive drugs, deprivation and mental illness (or episodes are sometimes simply faked), shamans attest to a world full of animal and ancestor spirits.33
In the modern, developed world, new forms of shamanism have arisen as part of the general growth of neo-Paganism. Enthusiasts reconstruct, re-read and re-interpret shamanism, turning it into a general spiritual enterprise divorced from its original context and meaning. It "has spawned numerous related books, workshops and training sessions, some of which incorporate practices and paraphernalia from a variety of native traditions"34, although many are critical of this modern reconstruction and the connection between modern and ancient shamanism can often be described as "tenuous" at best35. Arthur Versluis writes with scorn of "some modern authors who give workshops" but says that "to be a shaman is not merely a weekend of entertainment"36. The pagan scholar Nevil Drury starts his book Shamanism by saying that "it is a fantasy to endeavour to transpose the world of the shaman to our own contemporary setting"37 and despite hundreds of years of shamanic experience, spiritualists nowadays report a completely different spirit world. So someone's making a lot of stuff up. Either way, our knowledge of physiology, delirium, neurology and science is simply too great, and the history of charlatans, cold-readers and other chauvinistic spiritualists is too long, for shamanism to ever seem authentic again.”
2. The Causes of Modern Paganism and other NRMs
There are a few general causes of the continual growth of unusual, novel, small, untraditional, often magical, seemingly counter-cultural and Earth-centered religious movements. The New Age, the Celtic revival (Druids, et. al.), neo-Paganism and Wicca all seem to share some features and often share actual practices, beliefs and members38, and all are growing in sync. Likewise, there are often similar motivations for people to get involved with these types of movements:- Some adopt new religious movements and alternative spiritualities as reactions against the complexities of science and of reductionism39 and many members of the New Age in particular maintain attacks upon science, calling it closed-minded and limited in scope40,41. But the same rhetoric against the modern world can be found in conservative Christian and Muslim groups, so this does not entirely explain the growth of NRMs in particular.
- Anti-consumerism and anti-materialism supply common motives alongside general disillusionment with Western capitalism and globalisation42. Two scholars who have comprehensively examined modern Paganism state that the rise of interest in Paganism is "a response to an increased dissatisfaction with the way the world is going ecologically, spiritually and materially; people are disillusioned by mainstream religion and the realisation that materialism leaves an internal emptiness" (Harvey & Hardman 199543). But these feelings are also shared by many other traditional and world religions and by secular critics. For example, zany Pentecostal Christianity, also a growth sector in religion, shares these traits. Harvey Cox in his analysis specifically states that Pentecostalism is a response against contemporary materialism, giving expression to "the language of the heart" and supporting "chaotic emotions without suppressing them", and providing people with an "alternative" life, all within a Christian context44. All very similar proclamations to those supporting the New Age and many NRMs.
- Activism. Areas of popular concern are often taken up quickly by small and new religious movements. Activist causes have found accord with neo-pagan groups and bolstered their numbers and popularity, in particular from the 1970s. As liberal Christians have embraced many of these same concerns45 we can see that they are not the reserve of NRMs but of modern religious liberalism and moral conscientiousness.
- Environmentalism
is commonly proclaimed by all kinds of pagan, Celt, pseudo-Native and
New-Agers, and attracts many people on the basis of their concerns and
passions for the world that we live in. A "desperate" reaction to the
sad loss of the countryside and rapid urbanisation from 1890 onwards
made people turn towards paganism46,47
as a theoretical solution - and soon enough, neo-pagan religions arose
to take on the challenge. Predictably, such people are nature-deprived
city folk "as is usually true of those who love nature (the farmers are
too busy fighting it)"48. Many alternative spiritualities now sell themselves as representing "green religion"49.
Conservationism and sustainability are ubiquitous and this is the case
both amongst the emoting of individuals and the doctrine and stance of
organised groups.50
Pagans are especially into environmentalism, preservation, sustainability and other 'green' endeavours. Prudence Jones writes that "by experience we know that we can be transported into rapture by the beauty of Nature. [...] For Pagans the divine, transcendent powers seem to be present within Nature itself, and by deliberate ritual and contemplation the devout Pagan can make contact with these"(1995)51. A study published in 1986 brokedown the reasons that American Pagans gave for becoming involved, and the positive and green stance on environmentalism was amongst the top 6 most commonly given motivations52. Researchers William Bloom and M. York state that this has also been a strong trend within the New Age; according to York a New Ager "through interdependence and interpenetration, accepts responsibility for the planetary state"53. Author Kenneth Rees imagines that we might expect to find that one hundred percent of all Pagans are environmentally-conscious and "professing a green spirituality"54.
“As we can see, the state of Paganism in the UK has been changing in the last ten years or so and in several key areas. Ecologically, although Paganism has always had behind it a romantic view of the land and has always been 'green' philosophically, it has now also become more clearly an activist movement in this area, working more on the front line and becoming more coherent about the link between theory and action than it ever has been before. A few Pagans do not want this progression into activist ecology as well as into fights for animal rights, but they remain a minority and many Pagans are involved in such activities as collecting money for buying woods and planting trees.”
- See: "Religion Versus Womankind" by Vexen Crabtree (2007)Feminism: Neopaganism and Wicca formed strong associations with early feminists. Feminists joining Dianic witchcraft in the 1980s (influenced by authors such as Zsuzsanna Budapest and Starhawk) outnumbered all other kinds of convert in that decade56, and Paganism in general attracts those who are interested in feminist spirituality and goddess worship57.
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